The Edexcel Specification also expects you to understand Freud's theories as an alternative to the biological explanation of individual differences. Parts of this page that are helpful for that are marked with the green Freud icon

The Specification also expects you to understand Freud's theories as an alternative to the biological explanation of development. Parts of this page that are important for that are marked with the blue Freud icon

INSTINCT THEORY OF AGGRESSION

Aggression can be viewed as an instinct. An instinct is an unreflective urge within members of a species that is present from birth (though it may get weaker or stronger later in life). Instincts can be restrained by willpower or training or encouraged by provocation and frustration.

The ethological perspective looks at the aggressive instinct in animals. The most famous ethologist studying aggression was Konrad Lorenz who defined aggression as:

the fighting instinct in beast and man which is directed against members of the same species - Konrad Lorenz (1966)

The ethological perspective is based on Darwin's Theory of Evolution. It says that human beings and other animals have evolved a "fighting instinct" to defend their territory, their mates and their offspring from rivals.

Some call this affective aggression, based on fear or anger. This is quite different from predatory aggression, which has evolved to acquire food. Egger & Flynn (1966) found different parts of the brain responsible for each.

Why are cats cute when they're being aggressive?

A different perspective from Lorenz is the instinct theory of Sigmund Freud which I shall consider next. Freud agrees with Lorenz that aggression is an instinct and even that it may have its origins in evolution and the structure of the brain. However, he disagrees that it is a "survival trait". Quite the opposite: Freud thinks aggression is completely destructive and ultimately self-destructive.

Why do we do it then?

Atavistic behaviour

Instinct theorists like Freud and Lorenz agree that aggression is a left-over from our "pre-cultural" past. It is atavistic, the behaviour of our ancestors. In other words, it's an animal-type behaviour we no longer need but we're stuck with.

In the animal kingdom, most aggression is based on display and rarely leads to death; one animal backs down and admits the other is dominant.

The overwhelming impression one gets from watching animal disputes is of remarkable restraint and self-control. The spilling of blood is not the norm, it is a rare event  - Morris (1990)

Human aggression isn't like that because we've developed weapons that massively boost our capacity for violence. Knives, guns and bombs mean that we kill our enemies before they have a chance to back down. So if the aggressive instinct was useful for us once, it isn't any longer.

Cathartic behaviour

Instinct theorists like Freud and Lorenz also suggest that releasing aggression is good for us. Releasing strong emotion in a healthy way is called catharsis and it produces a cleansing effect. This is why we always feel better inside after a good laugh or a good cry. Instinct theory says we also feel better after releasing aggression. In fact, by releasing aggression, we reduce the aggressive urges that were building up inside us, making us less likely to lose control.

This is called the "Hydraulic Model" of aggression. "Hydraulic" refers to the behaviour of water under pressure. The Model suggests that aggression is like steam in a kettle, boiler or pressure cooker. It builds up and up. Eventually it explodes - this is a violent outburst.

However, we can "let off steam" or "vent our aggression" in smaller, controlled doses - this is catharsis.

An obvious way of releasing aggression in a cathartic way is by taking part in a controlled aggressive activity - like a physical sport.

Catharsis doesn't have to involve violence. Even non-contact sports like tennis and athletics can vent our aggression. In fact, self-disciplined people can vent their aggression even through sports that don't have  great exertion, like golf or snooker. In fact, even board games can be cathartic.

Catharsis is one of the more controversial aspects of instinct theory. Even more so is the idea that we can release aggression through catharsis just by watching aggression - such as the audience in a boxing match or violent movie.

It's OK folks, it's cathartic!

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF AGGRESSION
EXPLORING YOUR INNER RAGE

Freud's theories are explained on a page of their own. This page adds some detail to link those theories to aggression.

Freud's Psychodynamic Theory in general

THE ICEBERG MODEL OF THE PSYCHE

The conscious mind is that part of the mind we are aware of. It can be compared to the part of an iceberg that is above the water. It contains the thoughts we are currently thinking at any given moment. We might not have aggressive thoughts in our conscious mind at all but still be driven by aggressive urges that we're not aware of.

The pre-conscious mind is the part of the mind we are occasionally aware of. It can be compared to the part of the iceberg that is below the water-line but still visible. Aggression in dreams can be a clue to unconscious aggressive urges - but remember, dreams are always symbolic and not to be taken literally.

The unconscious mind is the rest of the psyche that we are unaware of. It can be compared to the bulk of the iceberg that is out of sight under the water. This contains powerful aggressive urges that would frighten and shock us if we ever became consciously aware of them. Fortunately for us, they only appear in disguised form in dreams and "Freudian slips".

Most aggression comes from the UNCONSCIOUS. We're not aware of it or in control of it.

THREE PARTS OF THE PSYCHE

Freud described three parts of the mind that develop at different ages but are locked into conflict with each other.

The id

The id consists of urges and desires. The id isn't rational or reflective: it is made up entirely of feelings. The id exists entirely in the unconscious mind.

Because the id is based on "the pleasure principle", it doesn't understand logic. If the id is denied its pleasure, it becomes frustrated. This can lead to aggressive urges.

The id resembles the function of the limbic system in the human brain: this is the brain's "emotion centre" and the source of our appetites, fear and aggression.

The ego

The ego is the second part of the psyche that develops in toddlers. It exists within the conscious mind. It is based on "the reality principle" because it understands the outside world. The ego has no desires of its own. It's job is to find a way to grant the desires that come from the id.

The ego resembles the function of the pre-frontal cortex in the human brain: this is the brain's "decision-making centre" which handles messages from the limbic system and decides how to act on them.

However, the ego has no conscience, no sense of right and wrong. It understands punishment and will try to avoid that but it feels no guilt. The ego has no problem using aggression to get the id what it wants, so long as it thinks it will win.

So the ego might be responsible for deliberate, thought-out aggression - like threatening an intruder to get them to leave your house or some of the aggression in sport, like a rugby tackle.

The super-ego

The super-ego super-ego straddles the conscious and the unconscious mind: we're partly aware of it, partly not. It is based on "the morality principle" and acts as "the voice of conscience". It tells the ego whether its thoughts are morally acceptable or not. When the super-ego objects to the ego's thoughts, it generates guilt and shame.  The super-ego may restrict the ego from using aggression.

This links in the Mara Brendgen's observation that younger children use physical aggression but as they get older they switch to social aggression. Social aggression is less likely to offend the super-ego than physical aggression.

The super-ego makes us feel guilty about being aggressive. However, it also wants us to be punished. If someone acts aggressively and is repeatedly punished for it (by getting beaten and bruised - or arrested by police), then this might be the super-ego at work.

Here, there is a reversal of the usual situation: guilt precedes crime - Jones (1998)

Freudians disagree about whether aggression is caused by a weak super-ego (which doesn't forbid it) or a strong super-ego (which wants you to be punished). Freud thought a strong super-ego was to blame but his later followers thought a weak super-ego was a better explanation.

LIFE & DEATH INSTINCTS

Freud's early theories suggested we were motivated by a sexual energy, a sort of life force called the libido. Aggression might be caused by the libido being misapplied or not properly controlled.

For example, aggression is produced by the id becoming frustrated, by the ego trying to get what the id wants or by the super-ego directing you to get into situations where you may be punished.

Later in his career, after the First World War and with another World War not far away, Freud suggested a different, darker interpretation.

Freud supposed that the id generated by a life-energy called "eros" (from the Greek word for love). This erotic energy drives us to reproduce sexually but it also drives us to be creative in other senses: to make friends, compose songs, build things, invent things, solve problems, work hard.

Opposing eros is a different force, the death energy of "thanatos" (from the Greek word for death).  This thanatic energy powers the ego in its efforts to hold back the id and resist its demands. Thanatos helps us show willpower and restraint (which is a good thing) but it also drives us to sabotage our lives, choose loneliness rather than happiness, mess up relationships and behave self-destructively.

Thanatos is responsible for aggression. This aggression is directed against ourselves but it can be projected outwards, to other people and our surroundings. However, catharsis is still possible if it can be channelled into constructive activities, like sport.

DEFENCE MECHANISMS

There are lots of defence mechanisms, but here are five that may link to aggression:

• Repression: aggressive urges that are repressed drain the libido. Eventually, there is not enough energy to keep the aggression repressed and it explodes out (remember the hydraulic model?)
• Denial: the conscious mind refuses to admit what it is doing; an example might be someone who insists they 'love' their wife or husband while abusing them
  
• Projection: the super-ego's hostility is directed towards other people who seem to be acting on those same feelings; this often involves "blaming the victim" for provoking the aggression
  
• Displacement: the id's urges are acted upon, but they are directed at a different target; this often happens with aggression, which can be targeted at someone or something else (a punchbag, a football, vandalism) rather than the real cause of your anger, and sport can be a form of displaced aggression
• Sublimation: the id's urges are acted upon, but are transformed into something socially acceptable; aggression may be sublimated in sports that require control and finesse or in art or creativity

Defence mechanisms often project thanatos outwards, so that we harm other people and not ourselves.

One of Freud's most striking explanations of aggression - and a striking example of defence mechanisms - comes in the 1909 case study of Little Hans. This 5-year-old boy suddenly developed a phobia of horses. Freud diagnosed the Oedipus Complex. This is an emotional crisis experienced by young children (according to Freud) where they feel intense aggression towards their same-sex parent brought on by sexual jealousy over their opposite-sex parent. On an unconscious level, Little Hans wanted his father to die so that he (Hans) could have his mother to himself. Hans displaced these feelings onto horses, which were common animals back in 1909.

You don't need to know about the Oedipus Complex for the exam, but the 2-minute video sums the idea up along with an alternative theory.

Little Hans' father used Freud's technique of psychoanalysis on his own son. The boy's phobia disappeared and he grew up to be a particularly well-balanced individual with a career in the creative arts.

APPLYING THE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF AGGRESSION TO REAL LIFE
AO2

Sexual Jealousy

Evolutionary psychology explains sexual jealousy in a simple way: we're biologically programmed to make sure our genes get passed on rather than someone else's. Freud has a far more complex explanation of sexual jealousy.

Obviously, sexual feelings come from the id, but they are strongly controlled by the super-ego. We learn sexual shame from our parents and from wider society, but the id's sexual needs are particularly strong and insistent. Most people, Freud believes, have far more colourful sexual needs than the ones that society allows (especially in Freud's lifetime, but even today people feel immense shame over sexual fantasies). This leads to conflict and unhappiness and some very unfortunate defence mecanisms.

Repression enables us to act "normal" but it is an immense drain on the thanatos energy in the psyche. Thanatos is also used to restrain other urges from the id, so if it is being used up repressing (for example) our homosexual feelings or attraction to our partner's best friend, there's less of it free to restrain aggressive impulses.

Displacement can cause us to take the frustration we feel from not being able to act on our sexual feelings and "take it out" on others - either our partner or other people who seem to take an interest in our partner.

Projection directs the hostility of the super-ego towards other people who seem to be acting on our own forbidden desires. This is the classic explanation for homophobia: people who are disturbed by their own homosexual desires become aggressive towards other people who act on those desires freely. It may explain jealousy; people who want to cheat become hyper-sensitive to any sgns that their partner might want to cheat.

The Oedipus Complex is the idea that, as children, we are sexually attracted to our own opposite-sex parent and feel jealousy and aggression towards our same-sex parent. As we grow up we repress these feelings, but they shape our relationships for the rest of our lives. All aggression in later life is really the displaced aggression we feel towards our mothers and fathers. Some of us "resolve" these feelings better than others, but since they are locked within the unconscious mind, only psychoanalysis can sort them out and bring us true peace of mind.

Freud's theory of the Oedipus Complex was explored in his famous case study of Little Hans, the boy with a phobia of horses. You may wish to study this because it gives a very different explanation of phobias from the one proposed by Watson & Rayner for Little Albert's fear of rats.

Summary of the Little Hans case study

Social Aggression

Not all aggression is physical aggression. There is also teasing, name-calling, rumour-spreading socially excluding people. Social aggression has two components:

• Indirect aggression, which is covert (hidden), such as spreading malicious gossip
• Relational aggression, which is overt (in the open) but non-physical, such as breaking off a friendship, pulling faces or “bitchiness”

Gordon Ingram (2014) shows that young children show more physical aggression than social aggression, but, as they grow into adolescence, this reverses and social aggression (gossiping, rumour-spreading) dominates. Brendgen et al. (2015) considers this as part of the Biological Contemporary Study.

For Freud, the difference between physical and social aggression is that social aggression comes from defence mechanisms because the super-ego won't allow us to act out physical aggression. This explains why social aggression increases in school-age children, because the super-ego develops around the age they start school.

Most social aggression is displacement, because the child is taking out its aggression upon other children, but the real target is the child's parent (or teacher). There is also sublimation going on, because the aggression is showing itself in more socially acceptable ways.

Projection is also an important defence mechanism in bullying. The bully may fear being an unloved outsider and so feels hostility towards other outsiders. People who seem isolated and vulnerable remind the bully of their own feelings of isolation and vulnerability, which they hate.

Twins will always have unusual relationships with their parents compared to ordinary brothers and sisters. They may compare themselves to one another and be sensitive to any suggestion that one is loved more than the other. This may be especially true of identical twins. If Freud's theory of the Oedipus Complex is true, twins may be more likely to share unresolved issues with their parents than other children. This is a different explanation for the findings of Brendgen et al.'s study into twins than Brendgen's genetic explanation for aggression.

You can see that Freud's explanations of aggression go much deeper than the biological explanations in terms of genes and brain structure: they focus on feelings, relationships and our sense of who we are. But is there any truth to them?

EVALUATING THE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF AGGRESSION
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Credibility

Freud's idea of the instinctive id and the rational ego links in with the neuroscience of the brain. The limbic system is the brain's "emotion centre" and the amygdala specifically handles fear and aggression. The pre-frontal cortex handles rational decision-making and receives messages from the amygdala, which it may or may not act upon.

Stephanie Gorka et al. (2013) used MRI scans to study activity between the pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala. She showed that alcohol interferes with the brain's ability to pass information between the two. This also backs up Freud's idea that one part of the psyche generates aggression and another part decides what to do about it.

Catharsis is a matter of ordinary experience - many people do feel calmer and more at ease after venting aggression on the sports field, in the gym or over a game of Dungeons & Dragons.

Catharsis in the "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" episode of "Community"

It is often argued that banning pornography would lead to an increase in sexual violence against women. The idea is that pornography is cathartic for some men. This is a controversial view, however - see below!

Objections

Other psychologists have offered very different interpretations of the Oedipus Complex and unconscious thanatos. People may have had biological problems (like Charles Whitman's brain tumour which might have caused him to go on his murdering spree). Little Hans' phobia of horses could be explained using classical conditioning - the way Watson & Rayner created Little Albert's fear of white rats.

Freud's concept of catharsis has come under particular attack. There are some examples of venting aggression leading to calm, but plenty of counter-examples. Couples who have blazing rows ought to be less likely to use violence if shouting and swearing were cathartic; in reality, couples who argue are more likely to be physically abusive too.

Albert Bandura in his 1961 study makes a big point of the fact that the children who observed the aggressive role models displayed more aggression themselves, not less. This goes against what catharsis would suggest.

Differences

The Edexcel Specification expects you to be able to compare and contrast the biological/evolutionary explanation of aggression with the psychodynamic explanation.

The biological/evolutionary view of aggression supports the nativist (nature) view of aggression. On the other hand, the psychodynamic view supports nature and nurture.

According to Freud, we are born with a psyche that has certain in-built drives and desires. Later in his career, Freud defined these as eros and thanatos. This makes an aggressive instinct part of our nature.

However, Freud also argues that we are shaped by our childhood experiences, especially our relationship with our parents. This nurture decides which defence mechanisms we adopt and they go on to decide our personality and how we display aggression towards other people and ourselves.

Another similarity between the two approaches is the focus on child development. Freud argues that children develop the id first and then the ego, but the super-ego doesn't develop until age 5. Biological psychology also suggests that babies use their right brains extensively but then the left brain develops language and logical faculties, but these aren't fully developed until about age 5. After this age, physical aggression becomes less common and social aggression more common, as noticed by Mara Brendgen.

There's a similar connection between the limbic system, which functions rather like the id because it generates basic desires and emotions, including aggression. The pre-frontal cortex functions like the ego because it makes the decision what to do about the emotions generated by the limbic system, such as aggression or fear coming from the amygdala.

Both approaches draw similar conclusions about aggression. They see it as a necessary behaviour. From an evolutionary perspective, aggression is part of a species' fitness to survive. Freud sees it as part of the thanatos instinct that restrains the id. The problem comes when aggression is not properly controlled or directed. Then it becomes a danger to the aggressor and to others nearby.

Applications

The main application of Freud's theories is the therapy called psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis can help treat aggression by exploring the unconscious causes of aggression. The psychoanalyst helps the client explore their own dreams and childhood memories and work out what they mean. Hopefully, the client will learn about the defence mechanisms they are using and the unresolved conflicts going on in their unconscious. They may come to self-knowledge.

The main criticism of psychoanalysis as a cure for aggression is that it is time-consuming, expensive and not at all certain to work. Since it is not scientifically-based, it is difficult to measure how effective it is and whether or not it is working for any particular client.

An alternative therapy, based on the Cognitive Approach, is Anger Management. In contrast, Anger Management is much more scientifically-based, has an effect within weeks or months rather than years and has measurable outcomes.

On the other hand, if it does work psychoanalysis does much more than just reduce aggressive behaviour. The client may discover a sort of inner peace that will help them in all sorts of ways as well as just managing their temper: psychoanalysis offers to improve relationships, unlock creativity and sporting potential and bring relief from anxiety, guilt, nightmares and emotional pain that might go all the way back to childhood.

EXEMPLAR ESSAY
How to write an 8-mark answer

Evaluate the biological explanation of aggression. In your evaluation you must make at least one comparison with the psychodynamic explanation of aggression.

• An 8-mark “compare” question awards 4 marks for describing the biological theory of aggression (AO1) and 4 marks for evaluating it (AO3). You need a conclusion to get a mark in the top band (7-8 marks).

Description
Evolutionary theory is based on the idea of descent with modification. Parents pass on characteristics to their offspring and natural selection means that the fittest characteristics survive and become commonplace.
This explains aggression because aggressive behaviour has survival value if it helps a creature defend itself or defend its mate and offspring.
This can be seen in the "fight or flight" response which is regulated by the amygdala. The brain increases dopamine and lowers serotonin levels in preparation for threat.
The amygdala controls our reaction to threat, producing either fear or aggression. The pre-frontal cortex receives messages from the amygdala and controls our decision making about whether to act on these feelings.


Evaluate
The Theory of Evolution is a respectable scientific theory with a lot of supporting evidence. It underlies the Animal Model, which is the idea we can generalise from animal studies to humans.
However, psychodynamic theory is much less scientific, since it is based on case studies and Freud's interpretation. Freud rejects animal studies, because they do not tell us what makes us uniquely human.
There are similarities because the biological approach locates aggression in one part of the brain (the amygdala) and rational thought in another (the pre-frontal cortex).
Freud also locates aggression in one part of the psyche (the unconscious) and rational thought in another (the conscious mind).

Conclusion
Both theories explain aggression but the invention of brain imaging techniques like PET gives the biological approach much more empirical evidence to support it, whereas psychodynamic theory is too subjective..

• Notice that for an 8-mark answer you don’t have to include everything about biology or Freud. I haven’t mentioned the other parts of the limbic system, testosterone or the importance of catharsis. But it is a balanced answer - one half description and one half comparison. I've also made my ENTIRE evaluation into a comparison with Freud, but you would not have to do that.