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The Edexcel Specification expects you to understand Freud's theories as an alternative to the biological theory of aggression. Parts of this page that are essential for that are marked with the red Freud icon; a faint pink Freud means it's less essential
The Specification also expects you to understand Freud's theories as an alternative to the biological explanation of individual differences. Parts of this page that are essential for that are marked with the green Freud icon
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PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Freud takes a very biological view of development. He believes we go through maturation, with different stages to our development that work a bit like a biological clock. At certain ages, new parts of our personality develop, we develop new ways of thinking and feeling and we experience new conflicts.

Freud's controversial view is that at all ages, we are motivated by sexual pleasure. This includes children, who. Freud argues. take sexual pleasure from their own bodies and from contact with their parents, especially their opposite-sex parents. Because of this sexual component, Freud's ideas about development are called "psychosexual".
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The Psychosexual Stages
Freud's psychosexual stages aren't important for the course. You won't be asked about them and don't need to revise them. I'm presenting them here to give you a complete idea of Freud's theory.
Freud argues that we develop through 5 important stages. At each stage there are particular challenges. If a child struggles at a stage, they may become fixated on it and behaviours and feelings that are typical of that stage, instead of fading, stay with them into adult life.
  • THE ORAL STAGE: This is the stage for newborns who take sexual pleasure from the mouth, particularly through suckling at the teat, but also through thumb sucking and chewing on pacifiers. If you become orally fixated, then even much later in life you may have compulsions to suck your thumb, bite your nails, smoke or chew gum. They can also be sarcastic (oral aggressive) or needy (oral passive).
  • THE ANAL STAGE: 1-2-year-olds have to control their bodies and potty-training becomes important. They take sexual pleasure from the anus. Anally fixated people may be obsessively tidy and uptight (anal retentive) or compulsively messy and disorganised but generous (anal expulsive).
  • THE PHALLIC STAGE: 3-5-year-olds discover their genitals and take sexual pleasure from touching them. This is the age of the "Oedipus Complex", a psychosexual crisis that leads to the creation of the super-ego. Phallic fixation can make you grow up to be vain, insecure and envious.
  • THE LATENCY STAGE: 6-12-year-olds go through a phase where they stop focusing on their bodies and become interested in games, hobbies and learning. This is the "childhood" that most people remember.
  • THE GENITAL STAGE: When puberty arrives, adolescents enter the final psychosexual stage, which lasts for their adult life. They rediscover sexual pleasure, become aware of their bodies and start taking a mature sexual interest in people other than their parents.
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Freud's psychosexual stages sound weird, but there's common sense and observation behind many of the details. The controversial bit is the stuff about very young children experiencing a pleasure that is sexual.
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APPLYING PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT TO REAL LIFE
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Pre-natal Development

Freud has little to say about the development of the foetus before birth. Some of Freud's followers argued differently. Otto Rank (1924) argued that the "trauma of birth" creates an anxiety in every human baby that shapes their personality for the rest of their lives.

Modern psychology goes against the idea of "birth trauma". Janet DiPietro et al. (1996) studied 32-week-old foetuses for 3 months, up to and after birth. They found there was no significant difference between the foetus and the newborn: it is alert, it sleeps, it has hearing and vision and it learns.
"[Birth] is a trivial event in development. Nothing neurologically interesting happens" - Janet DiPietro (1996)
DiPietro's study is a good example of how developmental psychology has changed from Freud's approach - based on speculation and theory - to the modern biological approach - based on observation and measurement.
Read more about DiPietro's findings here
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Post-natal Development

Early childhood is, for Freud, the crucial period for development. 4 of the 5 psychosexual stages are in this age group.

Freud's identification of the Oral Stage fits in with observations about newborns, who have very basic needs. Because only the baby's brain's right hemisphere is fully active, this ties in with Freud's view that babies are dominated by the id. Freud's idea that newborns get a sexual pleasure from sucking the teat and putting things in their mouth is more controversial.

Freud's theory that, in the second year of life, children enter into the Anal Stage fits in with some facts of development. Children in this stage develop language and the left hemisphere catches up with the right. Gross motor skills take a leap forward, with crawling then walking. Freud believes the ego develops at this age, which fits in with a child's language, movement and brain development. However, Freud's argument that the anus is a source of sexual pleasure for children is unproven (and perhaps unprovable).
Unlike biological maturation, Freud doesn't think the transition from one stage to the next is smooth. Children often get fixated in one stage and are unable to move on to the next without bringing behaviours from the previous stage with them. The problem is, there's no going back to the earlier stage and "doing it over again". You are stuck with the fixations you pick up.

It's like jelly. Once it sets, it can't go back to how it was before.
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Some time around the child's 5th year, the Phallic Stage begins, according to Freud. This is an age when social skills develop and children begin to keep secrets, express shame and show clear gender preferences (boys for sport and action toys, girls for horses, princesses and domestic toys). Children of this age report having nightmares and show anxiety. Freud is correct in pointing out that children of this age show an interest in their genitals, but once again, his argument that they get sexual pleasure from this is controversial (to say the least).

Freud argues that children in the Phallic Stage go through a crisis called the Oedipus Complex, in which they must wrestle with their sexual desire for their opposite-sex parent and the fear, guilt and resentment this produces regarding their same-sex parent. For Freud, the Oedipus Complex is the defining moment in childhood development: it's something that shapes who you turn into.

Children who resolve their Oedipus Complex reasonably successfully will develop into healthy, well-balanced adults. They will identify with their same-sex parents and take on their gender role: girls will be feminine, boys will be masculine. They will repress their sexual desires until they reach adulthood, then these desires will return as normal (as far as Freud is concerned) heterosexual attachments. 

Children who don't resolve their Oedipus Complex successfully (and this includes most of us) will grow up with lifelong problems. Some will have exaggerated gender roles and turn into hyper-masculine or hyper-feminine types. Some will struggle with their sexuality or find it hard to control their sexual urges or find security in sexual relationships. They will develop defence mechanisms that may be antisocial or self-destructive, like drug-taking or obsessive jealousy.
These problems don't show up straight away. After the age of 5, children go into the Latency Stage. They stop being interested in their bodies and in sexual pleasure. They focus on school, hobbies, games and other interests.

This is the childhood we all remember. One of the reasons why we feel Freud's theories are silly is that we don't remember our own childhood as being full of sexual anxiety. But we are remembering the Latency Stage. All the while, in the unconscious mind, the fixations from the earlier stages were taking shape.
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It's like a cake. It needs time in the oven to bake. Once it's ready, you're stuck with how it turns out. There's no turning it back into eggs, sugar and flour and trying again.
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 Adolescent Development

For Freud, the final stage of development is the Genital Stage, which begins after puberty. In this stage, young people discover (or, as Freud believes, rediscover) their bodies and sexual pleasure. If they have resolved their Oedipus Complex, they will take a mature sexual interest in the opposite sex. If they have fixations or defence mechanisms (and everybody does), then this interest may be anxious and conflicted, obsessive, exaggerated or just plain weird.
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In the Genital Stage, the cake comes out of the oven. Your personality is complete, with all its fixations and defence mechanisms. You have the rest of your life to come to terms with it.
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Adult Development

For Freud, there are no further important developments in adulthood. Once the Genital Stage begins, we are fully developed. We may grow in education, experience and waistline and we may pick up new skills or interests, but our fundamental psychological characteristics do not change.

Not all of Freud's followers agreed. Erik Erikson proposed several more changes that go on throughout life, into adulthood and old age.
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Erikson agrees with Freud that each stage is a "crisis" that must be resolved. Adolescents have a crisis over "devotion & fidelity" and try to sort out their own identity but are held back by confusion over the roles they must play; young adults have a crisis over "affiliation & love"  and are driven by a need for intimacy with others, while at the same time seeking isolation.
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EVALUATING PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
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Credibility

Freud's theories of personality were hard for people to accept back in the early 20th century - but then again, so were Einstein's theories of relativity! The mere fact that theories are odd or shocking doesn't mean they're automatically wrong or ridiculous.

​Freud's idea that children develop psychologically through certain stages in a certain order is widely accepted. What's controversial is Freud's view that these stages are essentially sexual and that the child has sexual reactions to its own body and its parents.
Freud based his theories on psychoanalysing his patients. He also carried out a case study on one child (Little Hans). Finally, he psychoanalysed himself, studying his own dreams and childhood memories.

Modern Biology is much more precise in the way it measures things, but some findings back up Freud's theories. For example, newborn babies' brains do work differently until they develop language; the right hemisphere that is so active in the first months of life does tie in with Freud's view of the id and the unconscious mind.
Only the right hemisphere is fully functional at birth; it remains dominant for the first 2 to 3 years of life, thus, infants develop patterns of emotional communication prior to developing left-hemisphere-based verbal skills when that hemisphere becomes fully functional around the 3rd year - Cynthia Devino & Mary Sue Moore (2010)
Crucial memories from early childhood may be stored in the right hemisphere but cannot be "put into words" by the left hemisphere, even though they still affect our emotions. This ties in very closely with Freud's idea of the unconscious mind influencing the conscious mind.

The idea that traumatic experiences in childhood having far-reaching effects for the rest of your life is well-understood. Child abuse, for example, may leave the sort of lasting scars that Freud described. However, Freud goes much further than this when he suggests that everyone​ is to some extent traumatised by their childhood.
Objections

Freud's ideas are criticised for not being scientific enough. While Freud tried to remain detached and used scientific-style terminology, most critics agree he was not entirely objective: he psychoanalysed his patients and himself and his conclusions are interpretations. Not everyone agrees with Freud's interpretations.
For example, British psychologist John Bowlby thought that Freud was quite right to focus on the attachment that forms between a mother and child. Attachment is a bond we can observe in animals too. Studying animals to understand human psychology is called ethology. Bowlby argued that attachment was a much better way of looking at development than the Oedipus Complex. He suggested that young children suffer maternal deprivation if they are away from their mother for any period of time (because she is ill, or works, or rejects them) and this leaves psychological scars into adulthood. The advantage of Bowlby's view is that it is much easier to gather empirical evidence in support of it.
A different criticism of Freud's view is that it puts too much emphasis on young childhood and ignores later childhood (the Latency Stage) and development during adulthood. Erik Erikson was another follower who made changes to Freud's theory. Erikson suggested humans go through far more stages than the 5 Freud identified. He thought these stages went all the way into old age and each is defined by a particular crisis that people in that stage must wrestle with, Erikson claimed newborn babies struggle with the need to trust adults and the impulse to fear them.
A bigger criticism of Freud's work comes from the American writer Jeffrey Masson (1984). Masson studied Freud's files and diaries and claims that Freud's patients were really suffering from child sexual abuse and that Freud knew this but suppressed the truth. According to Masson, Freud proposed the Oedipus Complex as a less-shocking alternative; the Oedipus Complex suggests that children have sexual fantasies about their parents that last into adulthood, but no actual sexual abuse takes place. If Masson is right (and his ideas are very controversial) then Freud's theory of the Oedipus Complex loss all credibility.
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Differences
The Edexcel Specification expects you to be able to compare and contrast the biological/evolutionary explanation of development with the psychodynamic explanation.
Biological psychologists agree that young children form very strong attachments to their parents, but they don't agree with Freud that these attachments are sexual desires. The Biological Approach views attachment as an evolutionary survival trait. If babies become attached to their mothers, they are more likely to stay safe and be cared for; if mothers attach to their babies, they will look after them and protect them. This attachment is only really needed for the first few years of life, but it might have side-effects for the rest of life too.

However, the Biological Approach doesn't go any deeper than that. Freud looks at the meaning of this attachment, what it feels like and how it becomes part of our personalities. Freud argues that the sort of sexual attraction we feel in later life is the same thing as the early attachment we feel for our mothers; it just expresses itself differently when we are young. There's no clear way to prove (or disprove) an idea like this. Sir Karl Popper argued that ideas that can't be proved or disproved (falsified) aren't really scientific ideas at all, which would be a big criticism of Freud's theories.

According to Freud, we are born with a psyche that has certain in-built drives and desires. We all go through the same psychosexual stages in the same order because this sort of development is "built in" to humans on a biological level - it is intrinsic and comes from nature.

However, Freud also argues that we are shaped by our childhood experiences, especially our relationship with our parents. This upbringing decides which fixations we get stuck with and they go on to decide our personality later on. The Oedipus Complex is, Freud claims, the most important crisis in childhood and how we resolve it is based on how our parents treat us. Therefore nurture plays a big role too.

Some biological psychologists also support nature and nurture. They would say that genes only give us predispositions but that experiences later in life decide whether we act on those predispositions or whether they stay hidden inside us.

Another similarity between the two approaches is the focus on child development. Freud argues that children develop the id first and then the ego, but the super-ego doesn't develop until age 5. Biological psychology also suggests that babies use their right brains extensively but then the left brain develops language and logical faculties, but these aren't fully developed until about age 5.

A big difference is the scientific status of the two approaches. Freud tried to be objective, but his theory depends very heavily on case studies, qualitative data and his own interpretations. The Biological Approach uses more objective methods, such as twin studies and adoption studies. Since the 1990s, it has also used brain imaging techniques which provide quantitative data about the structure of the brain.

Another difference is the use of animal studies. Ethology is a part of the biological approach that studies animals to learn about humans. The psychodynamic approach rejects this; although he focuses on instinct, Freud claims to study what makes us distinctively human, not what we share with other animals.

However, both approaches draw similar conclusions about human development. They see it as passing through a series of stages in a fixed order. From an evolutionary perspective, attachment is part of a species' fitness to survive. Freud sees it as part of the life instinct that powers the id. Both perspectives agree that development can be interrupted by some traumatic event or crisis. Then there might be behavioural problems much later in life..
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Applications

The main application of Freud's theories is the therapy called psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis explores the unconscious causes of development. The psychoanalyst helps the client explore their own dreams and childhood memories and work out what they mean. Hopefully, the client will learn about the fixations that are acting upon and the unresolved conflicts going on in their unconscious. They may come to self-knowledge. Although you cannot go back and "undo" the fixations, by understanding them better you gain more control over them. Before psychoanalysis, fixations may express themselves as urges you aren't even aware of; after psychoanalysis you can recognise the urge for what it is and perhaps choose to ignore it.
A client will normally visit a psychoanalyst once a week and the session will last for about an hour. In stereotypes, the client lies on a couch and talks while, out of sight, the psychoanalyst takes notes. In real therapy, client and psychoanalyst normally sit on chairs facing each other.

Psychoanalysis requires trust and intimacy. That might take months to build up and a course of psychoanalysis could take years. If the psychoanalyst is a qualified doctor (most are), then those sessions can be very expensive. However, a less-expensive version of psychoanalysis is group therapy, in which the psychoanalyst helps a group of clients share their problems, analyse each other and help each other understand their unconscious problems.
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EXEMPLAR ESSAY
How to write an 8-mark answer

Evaluate the biological explanation of development. In your evaluation you must make at least one comparison with the psychodynamic explanation of development.
  • An 8-mark “compare” question awards 4 marks for describing the biological theory of development (AO1) and 4 marks for evaluating it (AO3). You need a conclusion to get a mark in the top band (7-8 marks) and you must write something about the SIMILARITY or the DIFFERENCE between the biological view and Freud's view.

Description
Child development begins in the pre-natal stage. At around 8 weeks the embryo has developed a neural tune (spine) along with hands and feet.
In the post-natal stage, the newborn develops motor skills and the brain grows rapidly, going from 30% of adult weight at birth to 70% by age 2.
During adolescence, there are hormonal changes and the frontal lobes continue to develop until around age 18.
In adulthood, abilities peak in the 20s and start to decline in the 40s. Working memory declines in old age along with sight, hearing and immunities.


Evaluate
The Biological view of development is strongly scientific. It is based on empirical evidence, such as DNA testing and brain imaging.
Freud's view of development is much less scientific. Although Freud tried to remain detached, his theories are based on interpreting his patients and psychoanalysing himself, which is very subjective.
Both views of development focus on humans passing through stages. The Biological Approach looks at maturation through pre-natal stages (zygote, embryo, foetus), post-natal development, adolescence and different stages of adulthood.
Freud's theory looks at psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Like the Biological Approach, these stages happen in a strict order, but Freud claims we can be "fixated" in a stage, leading to personality problems later.

Conclusion
Both theories explain maturation as being due to nature rather than nurture, but Freud's psychosexual stages are due to nature and nurture because your relationship with your parents affects whether you get fixated or not

  • Notice that for an 8-mark answer you don’t have to include everything about biology or Freud. I haven’t mentioned the other parts of the limbic system, testosterone or the importance of catharisis. But it is a balanced answer - one half description and one half comparison. I've also made my ENTIRE evaluation into a comparison with FReud, but you would not have to do that.
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